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Unpaid positions in environmental sciences are common yet controversial. While they exclude already marginalised groups and are detrimental to the entire job market, many voices maintain that these positions are crucial, support science and conservation in economically disadvantaged areas, and allow early-career scientists their first step into the field.

To better understand the real scale and nature of these positions, we reviewed relevant job offers within marine biology and conservation, advertised globally in English, from three random months in —, both preceding and during the COVID pandemic. Unpaid and pay-to-work positions were more common than paid jobs, and offered mostly in economically privileged areas, such as North America and Europe.

Most of these postings required some or strong experience and education background. Most non-governmental and private organisations offering uncompensated work did not produce any peer-reviewed research output in the last 3 years. This review shows that a considerable proportion of unpaid work contributes to private businesses, and may often breach local labour laws.

Graphical Abstract. Brief summary of the early-career job market in marine biology and conservation. Uncompensated positions are common in conservation and environmental science. Because of their direct costs, but also indifference to the family composition, health, and financial security of participants, unpaid positions are only accessible to the privileged few.

This further deepens the already acute racial, gender, health, and class issues in STEM e. At the same time, unpaid work does not generally offer significant career advances Fournier et al.

Moreover, it can be difficult to prove as work experience Allan, The problem of discrepancies between paid and unpaid work opportunities was addressed before and has been thoroughly discussed by Whitaker and Fournier and Bond with regard to the United States wildlife job market. There was previously no information on the situation outside the United States, or on the nature of such unpaid positions.

Even though more perspectives are being slowly included e. Yet one cannot improve the situation without looking at it objectively. Here, we provide a snapshot of the early-career i.

We reviewed a total of job postings related to marine biology and conservation from all over the world. Our search was narrowed to three professional platforms sharing both paid and unpaid work opportunities in English: a marine mammal-oriented mailing list MARMAM , a website listing ocean conservation jobs 1 , and a widely used social media group dedicated to early-career job opportunities Marine Biologist network and job postings.

While these platforms do not present an exhaustive list of all work opportunities worldwide, they do provide a good overview of the job market and are widely used by early-career marine scientists, many of whom suggested to use those platforms in our review. Using a random number generator, we selected three random months from the period of a year preceding the data collection: November , February , and April We noted down all relevant information about the postings, paying special attention to the requirements in terms of experience, education, professional references, and additional qualifications , salary, and location.

If the same job was posted repeatedly, or advertised on more than one channel, it was only included once. Since very few postings informed on the actual wages, we grouped the postings into paid, unpaid, and requiring a fee to work.

Additionally, we included the research output of private companies, non-profit organisations NPOs and non-governmental organisations NGOs. We have excluded universities and governmental organisations, since these are expected to and do in fact publish immense quantities of scientific output.

Less than a half of all posted positions offered compensation Most of the paid and unpaid positions were offered in North America and Europe, and the positions requiring a fee to work were most common in Europe.

Most of the early-career i. Universities and governmental organisations offered mostly paid positions Most of the unpaid job offers came from non-profit organisations Among all wage types, the highest proportion of cases required up to 1 year of experience, and the lowest 5—10 years of experience.

Among all wage types, a B. The proportion of paid work grew with requested qualifications, from no paid positions for unqualified work, Paid positions requested no Both unpaid and pay-to-play positions usually did not request any additional qualifications Few positions specifically requested references.

Positions requiring a fee did not request any references in Although most private and non-governmental institutions published no or up to five scientific outputs in the 3 years preceding the data collection, institutions offering paid work seemed to be less likely to publish nothing at all than these offering no compensation Additionally, since in most cases information on the exact wage offered was not provided, we are missing information on the proportion of positions waged below the local minimum rate.

It is thus possible that the problem is even worse than what we believe, with many paid positions not paid a liveable wage Whitaker, In the third month, April , some impact of this situation could already be seen, with very few job advertisements posted. It is possible that the job market has seen some changes since then. One easily noticeable turn was the appearance of online internships with a fee.

These offers typically require the candidate to have strong analytical skills and experience, and perform data analysis remotely, using their own hardware, without being offered co-authorship based on personal inquiries to the organisations. Such remote internships were offered by a few organisations relying on internships with a fee before the coronavirus pandemic.

Interestingly, a large part of the unpaid job postings came from countries with strict labour protection laws, most notably the United Kingdom. In these situations, unpaid internships are illegal, except in few controlled situations, such as vocational placements as a part of an education, or work shadowing, where the intern does not perform any duties Government UK, Only about half of private company postings offered compensation.

These job postings referred almost entirely to tour operators in private whale watching companies, and contributed to one fourth of all unpaid offers. A number of private for-profit companies went as far as to request a fee from their tour operators. It is extremely important to stress that in many such cases the unpaid work offers may violate local labour laws.

What is quite interesting is that some of the unpaid and pay-to-work positions were offered by governmental organisations themselves, particularly in Venezuela and the United States Universities advertised mostly paid positions, and offered unpaid internships exclusively to students. Work availability is very unevenly distributed, with most positions, and an even larger proportions of the unpaid positions, based in North America and Europe.

These are the same groups already burdened with issues from systemic discrimination to direct harassment e. When taken into account the additional psychological Woolston, , and financial Favaro and Hind-Ozan, strain on early career scientists, the overall pressure on any minority in STEM is alarming. Providing fair wages is crucial to increasing retention of groups underrepresented in the field Jensen et al. Unpaid workers can unwillingly perpetuate the vicious circle of labour abuse, making it possible for companies to lower the rates of employed staff Siebert and Wilson, and deepen social inequalities Shade and Jacobson, Yet in the scarcity of paid work, desperate early-career environmentalists are often forced to accept pays below the industry standard.

The results of this are very clear: for example, the wages of Marine Mammal Observers and Protected Species Observers are dramatically lower than these of any other offshore employees, comparable only to these of unskilled workers, such as pot washers Glassdoor, a , b ; Wind Rose Network, , and well below the average salaries of skilled staff in the oil industry SPE Research, Yet these are people directly responsible for running or halting large, invasive operations of a billion dollar business, and as a result for the life or death of protected marine animals.

Furthermore, professional field technicians can be pushed out of the job market by workers willing to work for little or no compensation, which can hinder the quality of research and conservation Fournier and Bond, Protecting early stages jobs is thus crucial to protecting the entire job market and ensuring fair wages for everyone. It is widely understood that finances are tight for environmental organisations, and competition for funding is fierce.

This indeed often comes up as an argument in defence of unpaid positions, since for some organisations these could be the only way to get enough labour and funding to do the necessary work Elwen and Gridley, ; Society for Marine Mammalogy, We recognise that the laws protecting against unfair work conditions need to be complemented by an increase in funding to research, and that access to the existing funds may be hindered by many factors.

Especially in economically less advantaged countries or countries with no or limited access to funding schemes, internship fees might be the main or only source of income for the NGOs. The problem does not come from underfunded organisations in marginalised countries.

Non-governmental organisations and non-profit organisations offer a large part of the unpaid and pay-to-work positions, but also an important part of all marine jobs, and some of them have great contributions to science and conservation. To limit parachute science and provide training for locals, some organisations introduced policies that only require fees of foreign interns. Volunteering can be an enriching experience and a great tool to include marginalised groups Miller et al.

Such arrangements are often dictated by neoliberal market laws, where the intern is a demanding client rather than a worker e. Yet, they can be beneficial when practiced responsibly Palacios, ; Coghlan and Gooch, ; McGehee, Not every unpaid work is abusive, but volunteering should be truly voluntary, and never required. While income from voluntourism might be very necessary for some organisations, is a person paying for the right to work really a worker?

To avoid labour abuse, it is necessary to carefully name positions according to their workload and compensation, and follow not only the local legal requirements, but good practices guidelines within the field Parsons and Scarlett, Words matter, and such a change in language can hopefully help remove the unrealistic expectations for entry-level positions in our field and move past the notion that one needs years of experience to deserve to pay their bills.

Finally, one reason to engage in unpaid work is the necessity of building up a strong publication record, since paid Ph. Our review focussed only on the scientific output of private, non-governmental, and non-profit organisations. Within this group, the highest proportion of organisations that published at all was found among those offering paid positions. While many NGOs did not produce any scientific output, some of them had a very strong publication record, and many were engaged in outreach and education see Supporting Data.

Should publishing be the motivation to engage in unpaid work, it is advisable to carefully check the academic output of an organisation, as well as its authorship policies, since volunteering can, but rarely does translate into authorship.

This review should be understood as a snapshot of the situation, and not an exhaustive market study. We have excluded platforms listing exclusively paid work opportunities, as well as those directed to one nationality, and in languages other than English. While this is the dominant language in the field, this can be a source of potential bias. A larger-scale review would lead to a more robust inference, yet the total sample size of only advertisements over 3 months emphasises just how limited the job market is for marine biologists and conservationists.

One of the platforms we used focuses specifically on marine mammalogy — field that tends to attract enthusiastic workers, sometimes happy to simply have the opportunity to interact with charismatic megafauna, and may thus offer higher numbers of unpaid positions than other marine fields. We focussed on early-career options in the understanding of up to 7 years after the completion of a doctoral degree, and as such our review is not representative of the entire marine environmental job market. The situation may of course be very different for senior colleagues.

However, it is important to stress that the jobs we reviewed here were not addressed solely to people on the very first steps of their careers or undergraduate students. In this review, only the few available positions requiring a Ph.

While it seems understandable that the more qualified positions are more likely to be paid, it is unreasonable to demand a doctoral degree as a minimum qualification securing a wage, especially in non-academic positions. Yet such seems to be the case in marine biology and conservation.

If one wants to make their way in the field, there is often no other choice but to work for free. This leads to a situation in which professionals with experience, education, a network of referees, and expensive professional certifications are asked to volunteer for years, with no insurance or future job security.

Recently, the issue of unpaid work has been taken up within the Society for Marine Mammalogy, sparking quite an intensive debate and leading to declarations of action toward a more inclusive field Jacobson et al.

After years of discussion, this measure offers a promising situation in which action backed with funding is and will be taken against such practices.



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We hit eight of our 18 targets, and even where we did not cross the finish line, we made significant progress in each of our 10 goal areas. Through the processes, we learned a lot, and take those lessons with us as we continue with our work. Our actions have a bigger impact than just within Vancouver. We have inspired action in the region, nationally, and globally. We need to continue showing strong leadership and accountability as we move forward with our climate policies. Incentives and supporting voluntary changes in behaviour certainly have a part to play in our low-carbon shift, but to move faster, we need to use all available tools. We need bold but equitable regulatory actions as well to really begin to achieve the scale of change we need to see. We will also do a better job of telling the bad news with the good.


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